奈及利亞小黑妞 2006 10

我的室友奈及利亞小黑妞Dupe
每天像一隻快樂的孔雀,
早晚來我房間say hello, 講笑話, 談心事.
雖然27歲了,還是樂觀的像個16歲小女孩.聒聒的笑聲不斷.
.
每次她都穿不一樣的美麗時髦衣服來房間聊天.
只要天氣一變她就換裝,有時壹天換3套,害我搞不清是否是見到同一人.
我告訴她這裡天氣有得變了,要她一天準備個3,4套衣服不為過.
她好高興可以天天像model一樣.換好幾套服裝去上課.有其是management人超多的.
有時真的挺好奇她們的服裝品味.每次開房門迎接訪客,
都有不一樣的驚喜呈現在眼前.這也許是文化的差異吧.

我跟Dupe說下次等論文寫完要幫她拍幾張相親照,她高興扁了.
還要求要我介紹台灣男友給她(雖然她有未婚夫了).
我問她為何不交個英國男友.
她說英國人白種皮膚好醜.還有斑,好恶心.
她喜歡有色人種,例如,非洲,亞洲,印度.
因為這種膚色最美,膚質較細膩(不知是真是假,需要印證.)

不過真的我發現她们的五觀很美,只是不上相,照出來的照片全都黑.
記得以前常跟Apple研究,黑人是怎麼化裝,怎麼在黑色皮膚上擦眼影,腮紅.
現在答案揭曉 - 就是照擦不誤.
只是希望晚上停電時,他们不要穿白衣服走動就好

最近廚房很熱鬧,一下是中國之夜,要不就是日本之夜.
最好玩的是奈及利亞之夜,從沒看過那麼多的黑人在一個有限的空間裡.
明亮的眼睛,閃爍的像深夜裡荒郊外的精靈,白白的牙齒,真的印證了subwarden - Beggy老媽的名言'像極了廚房的白磁磚'.
由於黑人的gene,前突後翹,不管男女,只要保持良好身材,都很賞心悅目,
由其是我们學校的黑人女同學, 當她們的裝扮強調這方面時,真的叫男生噴鼻血.

不過我们中國人的gene也不差,平凡就是美,較耐久. - 當然要記得 -不要發胖,不要頭髮灰白.永遠都是看起來像25歲!

The most intelligent man in Egpt. 2006 10

The most intelligent man in Egpt.
從小到大除了佩服老爸的多才多藝博學多聞,就很少碰到真正有內涵的人.但Ahemd是我
第一個佩服的'年輕人',雖然只有28歲,外表老成,又高又壯,微胖猶黑的肌膚,且又是埃及來
的,班上沒幾個人喜歡跟他打招呼或坐在一起,再加上上課超會問問題,用聽不懂的阿拉伯
口音發表意見,很多東方學生,很反感. 我起先也不喜歡他髒髒粗壯外表,可是我熟悉阿拉伯
口音,雖然我们班同學都超優秀,不是法律,就是英語教學,或博物館系(校內三大最嚴格入學
科系),我發覺他上課嚴謹所問的問題非常有智慧,有時老師都答不出來,於是我試著改坐他
旁邊,跟他做朋友,從此之後他的長處被我通通挖出,並昭告天下 - 反而給他帶來一些困擾.

看著他每日踏著沉重步伐進入教室,嚴肅顏面上透著憂慮的氣息令人望而怯步,經常沒人
願意坐在他身邊.於是我提起勇氣跟他說話,發覺他非常有教養很和氣很健談,是一位埃及
著名大學的助教.慢慢的我们就成了好友,一起上下課,為了糾正他的阿拉伯式口音,我義務
當起他和他伊拉克室友的小老師,重新改進他们的發音.

教了他才知阿拉伯語沒有B發音,他都發P,難怪沒人聽的懂他說話.不過他很嚴肅,每天除了
魔鬼式英語課程,及大量的作業及考試,他都唸到清晨,結果每次的作文考試他都拿A plus,
令人驚嘆,我借閱了他所有的作文,回家研讀,發覺,第一段我就要查好多單字,查完後還要猜
句中的哲理,他的字彙及本身的知識異常豐富.

於是拿出作業請他指正一下,他只回了我一句話'你書讀的不夠多',字彙多句型複雜並不能
代表英文好,你要多多廣範閱讀及思考.我本來不相信他英文程度真的那麼好.於是拿了一
份500字的作文請他挑錯,他批註的地方儘然與老師的一模一樣,還比老師嚴謹.我真佩服的
五體投入,他說沒什麼他改了5年學生的文章.吼!本班真寶耶!

我一宣傳後,不得了.所有班上同學開始搶坐他左右,做飯送甜點給他吃,背後卻設計要求

這位埃及學生幫其改所有的作業及簡報內容好過關.於是,我们日行漸遠.過了一週後他

忍不住打電話來質問我為什麼不理他,我回應'你有很多朋友就不打擾',他說他不要那些

友誼,都是利用,他恨透了.於是我们約法三章,友誼盡量不簽扯到學業.



為了誠信再沒提到作業,相反的開始探索他成功學習背景及Muslim世界.我問他為何年紀
輕輕的英文這麼棒?他說他來自於一個鄉下村落的單親家庭.雖然窮,但母親很重視孩子的
教育,再加上國小時,遇見了一位好的地理老師,啟發興趣及開拓其視野,讓他幼小心靈就
深愛地理,下決心要整治泥羅河,由於母親及姊姊長期生病.全家靠他養,一家人窩在不到
幾坪的小公寓裡.他哪有錢出國留學.何況一位埃及助教薪資與英國比少的可憐(我聽了
之後想哭),於是窮則變,變則通,他憑他的聰明及高超的寫作能力說服了美國一個大型
研究機構提供所有的出國費用.但他有一個仇人就是學院的系主任,百般想阻撓他出國
進修,告到政府,要他找保人,保證回國續職,要不..要上法院,找保人還好,保證金要英鎊17萬
(好狠的系主任)要不埃及政府要下揖補令逮他.難怪挨及友人眉頭不展.接下來學校每日給
的作業多的喘不過氣來,很多需要電腦來運作,埃及同學窮的沒自己的手提電腦,於是我
盡量在半夜12點前寫完作業,再借他到清晨,大事無法幫,只好幫點小事.不是很多人願做,
但我做到了.沒想到..他銘記在心.開學後第一學期課程,逼的喘不過氣來,我搬到較偏靜的
高檔宿舍,他也搬到隔壁棟,碩博士生的生活晝伏夜出,所以書讀累了半夜就打個電話互相
聊天拜訪,想家了,就會安排飯局互相請來請去,埃及同學功課太強,已在學生圈小有名氣,
天天有人找他幫忙,煮大餐給他吃,他每次一定要請客的人連絡我,我不出現,他就不參加.\


有什麼郊遊活動一定先徵得我的同意,我去他才去(我有點受寵若驚,無法承受).在第一
學期我生了一場病一個月沒去上課,他知道後,要我去他那吃飯補一補,當然不是他做,
要不就是過來拜訪看我好不好並陪我聊幾個鐘頭解鄉愁,從這幾次拜訪我開始聽阿拉伯
歌曲,了解地理歷史及伊斯蘭教,及交更多中東朋友,我發覺以前在台灣..得到的訊息很
不正確.例如一位男士可娶四個太太;女人要包頭巾,除了雙眼以外,其餘部份不能在男人
面前暴露出來;中東人心眼小好戰;政府貪污無能;婦女不能外出或受教育,...等.很多
錯誤的報導及了解都來自西方媒體的擴大宣傳及控制,其實有些與事實不符,有些已有
改善.就拿包頭巾遮身遮臉,很多國家不一.


中東婦女從頭包到腳還有一大好處就是防晒,她们的肌膚大都跟嬰兒般細緻柔嫩,加上
強調豐腴,可想而之是保持的不錯,這也是為什麼中東男士結一次婚貴的要命,聘金聘禮
不可少,因為女人很貴,一生當中出嫁前,女方家長呵護,培養,教育,再加上婚前守身護體,
除了家裡親人外,沒別的男士看到她真的美,所以是這等犧牲很大的.


埃及友人一直虔誠信教,我質問他,你们教義如果真的那麼好,為什麼國家經濟落後,政府
貪污,還有些激進份子殺害無辜?埃及友人說:教義本身是正確,卻被有野心心術不正的
領導者操弄著.教義就像一台性能好的車子,領導者就是司機,開不對方向,整台車就走偏了.
我問他怎麼知道教義是正確的?他說可蘭經裡有一些事已被科學印證.

減肥茶 2006 10 21

10月21日
Peggy 和 Jennifer 10/19離開Leicester.
臨行前留了很多吃的給我.
其中一項,我很感興趣,用熱水泡開,喝了以後味道跟酸梅湯一樣好喝.
Peggy稱之為'減肥茶'.
我一聽之下好高興,第一天下午就泡了一包.
晚上Peggy和Jennifer來我房間時,
Peggy交待,這減肥茶藥性很強,她喝一週就瘦一公斤.
但是我喝了12小時都沒感覺.
於是隔天,丟了4包到電鍋裡煮.
當水沸騰時,香味四溢.
趁著溫熱,好好品嚐了一杯約500cc.

約1小時後,肚子有點不舒服.
就跑化粧室.
似乎進了裡面,就好久都出不來了.
終於了解到藥性有多強 - 簡直要虛脫了.
整晚返覆折騰,連胃也開始不行.
敢緊大量灌溫水,直到半夜12點多才穩住.
終於見識了 '減肥茶' 的藥效.
往後一天只準喝一杯.
希望一個月下來至少有2公斤不見- 也好.

2006 10 13

10月13日
Another happy day again!
老朋友還在Leicester真好.

與Jennifer連絡上了,下週跟著去Bristol 逛大街去.

Puasha,我的新南非黑人朋友也蠻喜歡逛街,逛超市,下週要一起逛supermarket去,我们兩未來可能要組2人菜籃族了.

美麗的Nicole要我安裝Skype,我兩超好笑的昨晚還用google talk連絡安裝Skype事宜,到最後我先倒到床上睡著了,因為醫生開的藥會一天昏睡3次以上,
害的Nicole在遠端以為我怎麼了.

Wow,Kitty 上週嫁她的波蘭男友,終於有情人終成眷屬(糟糕知道的成語愈來愈少了), 希望下次到London能遇見她.

有點難過的是Apple馬上要回國了,又少了一位聰明美麗又善良,又有超敏銳藝術細胞的好朋友在這分享故事,當然沒有我們兩人照像組互拍,是一大損失.

Wow,今年的學妹(我们國家的ㄡ)有IELTS 7.5,真為她驕傲.

白木耳

廉價有效的膠原蛋白植物燕窩---白木耳

其實『膠質』『骨質』在人體內就好比房子的『水泥』『磚塊』
通常一些老化現象都是膠質缺乏才會引發。

白木耳是養顏秘方，卻鮮少人知道。
人隨著年齡的增長，皮膚內膠質 (膠原蛋白) 會漸漸流失，然後皮膚漸漸鬆弛，失去彈性。

至於如何補充膠質(膠原蛋白)，用擦的是沒用的， 因為膠原蛋白是大分子，
用擦的只能到表皮層增加皮膚保濕度，無法補充到真皮層失去彈性的肌膚。

所以要用吃的補充膠質(膠原蛋白)像是豬腳, 雞腳,牛筋,白木耳,燕窩都是富含膠質的食物，
如果以現在女性在乎身材為前題，白木耳絕對是補充膠質的最佳食物首選。

白木耳富含的植物膠質絕不輸燕窩之前是聽人家說，
有錢人吃燕窩，沒錢人吃白木耳。

但最近我看雜誌說，辜家二少爺辜 仲瑩也是早上吃一碗， 煮爛 不加糖的白木耳保養皮膚，
頓時覺得自己真是有眼光， 所以我覺得話應該改成：外行人吃燕窩，內行人吃白木耳。

至於如何煮白木耳:

1.我是去超市買盒裝 "黃"木耳，(千萬不要買純白木耳 ,因為純白木耳煮不爛)。
2.拿1片去泡冷水泡軟(可先去除底部較黃部份)約30分鐘。
3.倒掉前兩次泡黃木耳的水, 因為有些腥味。
4.然後將黃木耳加水放進果汁機打爛。
5.再將打爛的黃木耳 放進鍋裡煮約一個小時。(水加多少自己斟酌 , 我自己水不喜歡放太多)
6.如何調味也看個人需要。(加龍眼乾紅棗，加蓮子糖水，單加糖水，加蜂蜜， 加果糖，或冰糖 ...)

我一星期煮1片約可吃五天。一天吃一碗，當妳照上面方法，
用果汁機打爛黃木耳去煮，妳會發現：吃起來根本跟外面賣的即食燕窩一模一樣。

我第一個反應就是，搞不好許留山的燕窩，就是這樣做出來的？真是無從考證起！


所以愛美的女性，愛美不假手他人，自己來煮白木耳養顏吧!

十個哲理故事

一場精采人生課程~~ 十個哲理故事


１、分粥

　　有七個人曾經住在一起，每天分一大桶粥。要命的是，粥每天都是不夠的。一
開始，他們抓鬮決定誰來分粥，每天輪一個。於是乎每週下來，他們只有一天是飽
的，就是自己分粥的那一天。後來他們開始推選出一個道德高尚的人出來分粥。強
權就會產生腐敗，大家開始挖空心思去討好他，賄賂他，搞得整個小團體烏煙障
氣。然後大家開始組成三人的分粥委員會及四人的評選委員會，但他們常常互相攻
擊，扯皮下來，粥吃到嘴裏全是涼的。最後想出來一個方法：輪流分粥，但分粥的
人要等其他人都挑完後拿剩下的最後一碗。為了不讓自己吃到最少的，每人都儘量
分得平均，就算不平，也只能認了。大家快快樂樂，和和氣氣，日子越過越好。

　　同樣是七個人，不同的分配制度，就會有不同的風氣。所以一個單位如果有不
好的工作習氣，一定是機制問題，一定是沒有完全公平公正公開，沒有嚴格的獎勤
罰懶。如何制訂這樣一個制度，是每個領導需要考慮的問題。


２、表演大師

　　有一位表演大師上場前，他的弟子告訴他鞋帶鬆了。大師點頭致謝，蹲下來仔
細繫好。等到弟子轉身後，又蹲下來將鞋帶解鬆。有個旁觀者看到了這一切，不解
地問：“大師，您為什麼又要將鞋帶解鬆呢？”大師回答道：“因為我飾演的是一位
勞累的旅者，長途跋涉讓他的鞋事鬆開，可以通過這個細節表現他的勞累憔
悴.”“那你為什麼不直接告訴你的弟子呢？”“他能細心地發現我的鞋帶鬆了，並且
熱心地告訴我，我一定要保護他這種熱情的積極性，及時地給他鼓勵，至於為什麼
要將鞋帶解開，將來會有更多的機會教他表演，可以下一次再說啊。”

　　人一個時間只能做一件事，懂抓重點，才是真正的人才。


3、鸚鵡

　　一個人去買鸚鵡，看到一隻鸚鵡前標：此鸚鵡會兩門語言，售價二百元。另一
隻鸚鵡前則標道：此鸚鵡會四門語言，售價四百元。該買哪只呢？兩隻都毛色光
鮮，非常靈活可愛。這人轉啊轉，拿不定主意。結果突然發現一隻老掉了牙的鸚
鵡，毛色暗淡散亂，標價八百元。這人趕緊將老闆叫來：這只鸚鵡是不是會說八門
語言？店主說：不。這人奇怪了：那為什麼又老又醜，又沒有能力，會值這個數
呢？店主回答：因為另外兩隻鸚鵡叫這只鸚鵡老闆。

　　這故事告訴我們，真正的領導人，不一定自己能力有多強，只要懂信任，懂放
權，懂珍惜，就能團結比自己更強的力量，從而提升自己的身價。相反許多能力非
常強的人卻因為過於完美主義，事必躬親，什麼人都不如自己，最後只能做最好的
公關人員，銷售代表，成不了優秀的領導人。


４、金人

　　曾經有個小國的人到中國來，進貢了三個一模一樣的金人，金碧輝煌，把皇帝
高興壞了。可是這小國的人不厚道，同時出一道題目：這三個金人哪個最有價
值？皇帝想了許多的辦法，請來珠寶匠檢查，稱重量，看做工，都是一模一樣
的。怎麼辦？使者還等著回去彙報呢。泱泱大國，不會連這個小事都不懂吧？最
後，有一位退位的老大臣說他有辦法。皇帝將使者請到大殿，老臣胸有成足地拿著
三根稻草，插入第一個金人的耳朵裏，這稻草從另一邊耳朵出來了。第二個金人的
稻草從嘴巴裏直接掉出來，而第三個金人，稻草進去後掉進了肚子，什麼響動也沒
有。老臣說：第三個金人最有價值！使者默默無語，答案正確。

　　這個故事告訴我們，最有價值的人，不一定是最能說的人。老天給我們兩隻耳
朵一個嘴巴，本來就是讓我們多聽少說的。善於傾聽，才是成熟的人最基本的素
質。


５、辭職

　　A對B說：“我要離開這個公司。我恨這個公司！”B建議道：“我舉雙手贊成你報
復！！破公司一定要給它點顏色看看。不過你現在離開，還不是最好的時機。”A
問：為什麼？B說：“如果你現在走，公司的損失並不大。你應該趁著在公司的機
會，拼命去為自己拉一些客戶，成為公司獨當一面的人物，然後帶著這些客戶突然
離開公司，公司才會受到重大損失，非常被動。”A覺得B說的非常有理。於是努力
工作，事遂所願，半年多的努力工作後，他有了許多的忠實客戶。再見面時B問
A：現在是時機了，要跳趕快行動哦！A淡然笑道：老總跟我長談過，準備升我做總
經理助理，我暫時沒有離開的打算了。

　　其實這也正是B的初衷。一個人的工作，永遠只是為自己的簡歷。只有付出大
於得到，讓老闆真正看到你的能力大於位置，才會給你更多的機會替他創造更多利
潤。

６、選擇

　　有三個人要被關進監獄三年，監獄長給他們三個一人一個要求。美國人愛抽雪
茄，要了三箱雪茄。法國人最浪漫，要一個美麗的女子相伴。而猶太人說，他要一
部與外界溝通的電話。三年過後，第一個沖出來的是美國人，嘴裏鼻孔裏塞滿了雪
茄，大喊道：“給我火，給我火！”原來他忘了要火了。接著出來的是法國人。只見
他手裏抱著一個小孩子，美麗女子手裏牽著一個小孩子，肚子裏還懷著第三個。最
後出來的是猶太人，他緊緊握住監獄長的手說：“這三年來我每天
與外界聯繫，我的生意不但沒有停頓，反而增長了200％，為了表示感謝，我送你
一輛勞斯萊斯！”

　　這個故事告訴我們，什麼樣的選擇決定什麼樣的生活。今天的生活是由三年前
我們的選擇決定的，而今天我們的抉擇將決定我們三年後的生活。我們要選擇接觸
最新的資訊，瞭解最新的趨勢，從而更好的創造自己的將來。
(Embedded image moved to file: pic00292.jpg)


７、老虎

　　兩個人在森林裏，遇到了一隻大老虎。A就趕緊從背後取下一雙更輕便的運動
鞋換上。B急死了，罵道：“你幹嘛呢，再換鞋也跑不過老虎啊！”A說：“我只要跑
得比你快就好了。”

　　二十一世紀，沒有危機感是最大的危機。特別是入關在即，電信，銀行，保
險，甚至是公務員這些我們以為非常穩定和有保障的企業，也會面臨許多的變
數。當更多的老虎來臨時，我們有沒有準備好自己的跑鞋？


８、趕考

　　有位秀才第三次進京趕考，住在一個經常住的店裏。考試前兩天他做了三個
夢，第一個夢是夢到自己在牆上種白菜，第二個夢是下雨天，他戴了斗笠還打
傘，第三個夢是夢到跟心愛的表妹脫光了衣服躺在一起，但是背靠著背。這三個夢
似乎有些深意，秀才第二天就趕緊去找算命的解夢。算命的一聽，連拍大腿
說：“你還是回家吧。你想想，高牆上種菜不是白費勁嗎？戴斗笠打雨傘不是多此
一舉嗎？跟表妹都脫光了躺在一張床上了，卻背靠背，不是沒戲嗎？”秀才一
聽，心灰意冷，回店收拾包袱準備回家。店老闆非常奇怪，問：“不是明天才考試
嗎，今天你怎麼就回鄉了？”秀才如此這般說了一番，店老闆樂了：“喲，我也會解
夢的。我倒覺得，你這次一定要留下來。你想想，牆上種菜不是高種嗎？戴斗笠打
傘不是說明你這次有備無患嗎？跟你表妹脫光了背靠靠躺在床上，不是說明你翻身
的時候就要到了嗎？”秀才一聽，更有道理，於是精神振奮地參加考試，居然中了
個探花。

　　積極的人，像太陽，照到哪里哪里亮，消極的人，像月亮，初一十五不一
樣。想法決定我們的生活，有什麼樣的想法，就有什麼樣的未來。

９、駱駝

　　在動物園裏的小駱駝問媽媽：“媽媽媽媽，為什麼我們的睫毛那麼地長？”駱駝
媽媽說：“當風沙來的時候，長長的睫毛可以讓我們在風暴中都能看得到方向。”小
駱駝又問：“媽媽媽媽，為什麼我們的背那麼駝，醜死了！”駱駝媽媽說：“這個叫
駝峰，可以幫我們儲存大量的水和養分，讓我們能在沙漠裏耐受十幾天的無水無食
條件。”小駱駝又問：“媽媽媽媽，為什麼我們的腳掌那麼厚？”
駱駝媽媽說：“那可以讓我們重重的身子不至於陷在軟軟的沙子裏，便於長途跋涉
啊。”小駱駝高興壞了：“嘩，原來我們這麼有用啊！！可是媽媽，為什麼我們還在
動物園裏，不去沙漠遠足呢？”

　　天生我才必有用，可惜現在沒人用。一個好的心態+一本成功的教材+一個無限
的舞臺=成功。每人的潛能是無限的，關鍵是要找到一個能充分發揮潛能的舞臺。

１０、陳阿土

　　陳阿土是臺灣的農民，從來沒有出過遠門。攢了半輩子的錢，終於參加一個旅
遊團出了國。國外的一切都是非常新鮮的，關鍵是，陳阿土參加的是豪華團，一個
人住一個標準間。這讓他新奇不已。早晨，服務生來敲門送早餐時大聲說
道：“GOOD MORNING SIR！”陳阿土愣住了。這是什麼意思呢？在自己的家鄉，一般
陌生的人見面都會問：“您貴姓？”於是陳阿土大聲叫道：“我叫陳阿土！”如是這
般，連著三天，都是那個服務生來敲門，每天都大聲說：“GOOD MORNING SIR！”而
陳阿土亦大聲回道：“我叫陳阿土！”但他非常的生氣。這個服務生也太笨了，天天
問自己叫什麼，告訴他又記不住，很煩的。終於他忍不住去問導遊，“GOOD
MORNING SIR！”是什麼意思，導遊告訴了他，天啊！！真是丟臉死了。陳阿土反復
練習“GOOD MORNING SIR！”這個詞，以便能體面地應對服務生。又一天的早晨，服
務生照常來敲門，門一開陳阿土就大聲叫道：“GOOD MORNING SIR！”與此同時，服
務生叫的是：“我是陳阿土！”

　　這個故事告訴我們，人與人交往，常常是意志力與意志力的較量。不是你影響
他，就是他影響你，而我們要想成功，一定要培養自己的影響力，只有影響力大的
人才可以成為最強者。

music system

www.josef-k.net/mim/MusicSystem.html

(This article is extracted from the above mentioned website)


The Western Music System
This chapter is here to explain the basics of the western system of music. It's aim is to present the non-musical reader with some of the musical terminology that will be present in the rest of this report. I assume that the reader has no knowledge of music and therefore the musically competent reader is advised to advance to the next chapter.

The Note and the Interval
A note is the basic unit of music and relates to the pitch or frequency of a sound. Some musical instruments are monophonic and can only play one note at once, like a flute or a human voice, and others are polyphonic. Both the guitar and the piano, for instance, and can play multiple notes simultaneously.

Notes can be played at different pitches, and the difference between the pitches of two notes is usually referred to as an interval.

The most basic interval of music the octave.This interval relates to a doubling or halving of the frequency of a note. You can hear this difference in pitch when you hear a male vocalist and a female vocalist singing the same tune.

New notes can be defined in relation to the octave by splitting this interval into a number of smaller ones. Different cultures around the world use different numbers of intervals and it is primarily this, and the way in which the intervals are used rhythmically, that uniquely defines the culture's sound.

Western music has evolved into a system that partitions the octave into twelve equal intervals called semi-tones. Each of the notes created by doing this are labelled using the letters A though to G, and the modifiers '#' (sharp), which means 'add one semi-tone', and 'b' (flat), which means 'subtract one semi-tone'. The layout of the piano keyboard below shows how this system works.


The normal frequency of the A above Middle-C on the keyboard is 440Hz, and it is this note that instruments are usually tuned to. An instrument tuned to this frequency is said to be tuned to concert pitch. The reason for starting at the key marked C is historical.

Each key is a semi-tone above the key below it. So D is a tone (two semi-tones) above C, E is a tone above D, and F is a semi-tone above E. The black note above C is called by two names: C# or Db, and as can be seen from the diagram all the black notes have two names. Around the time of Bach's "Well-Tempered Clavier" (1722-44) it was decided that all semi-tones would be at equal intervals. Previous to this time C# and Db weren't the same note as we shall see later.

It gets some what more complicated than this as music theory also allows for a double sharp (## or x) and a double flat (bb) which add or subtract two semi-tones from a note. In the equally tempered system this gives each note potentially three different names. A 'C' could be one of C, B#, or Dbb. Notes referred to by more than one name are usually called Enharmonic.

Scales and Key Signatures
A scale is any consecutive series of notes that forms a progression between one note and its octave. The scale can go either up by an octave or down by an octave. The word comes from the Latin scala, meaning ladder, and this is exactly what a scale is - a way of ascending or descending an octave, with each rung representing one of the notes in between.

There are many different types of scale but the most important ones in Western music are the diatonic major scale and the three relative minor scales.

If you refer to the piano keyboard above and only consider the white notes then starting at C we have: C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C. This is the major scale with a root note of C, or C major for short. The major scale has its own distinct pattern of tones and semi-tones, for instance there is a gap of a tone between the C and the D, but only a semi-tone interval between E and F. Any combination of notes that maintains this set of interval relationships is a major scale. The scale of F# major would have the notes: F#, G#, A#, B, C#, D#, E#, F#. The notes names always go up one letter at a time and accidentals (#s or bs) are added to maintain the interval sequence. You could also theoretically have a Gb major as well even though F# and Gb are the same note. It's notes would be Gb, Ab, Bb, Cb, Db, Eb, F, Gb.

There are three types of minor scale. The first one is called the natural minor and has exactly the same combination of tones and semi-tones that the major has, except that it starts from the major's sixth note. For example, the scale of 'A' minor has the notes A, B, C, D, E, F, G, A. This is like shifting the scale of C major by six notes. A minor is therefore called the relative minor of C major because it has the same number of accidentals as the major (in this case none).


The harmonic and melodic minors share the same semi-tone interval between the 2nd and 3rd degrees of the scale, but have modified intervals on the higher degrees of the scale. The harmonic minor has a raised 7th (by one semi-tone) which makes it more compatible with the harmony rules used by the major scale. On the other hand the melodic minor, which is used for melodies, was constructed to avoid the three semi-tone interval, which was considered an unacceptably large jump when used in a melody, by raising the 7th and 6th degrees of the scale (as in the diagram) on the way up, and then lowering them, as in the natural minor scale, on the way down.

The number of sharps or flats in the major or natural minor uniquely defines a scale. For instance A major has three sharps (F#, C# and G#) and is the only major scale to have so. It's relative minor, F# minor, also has three sharps in its natural minor form. This pattern follows thoughout. The major scale and its relative minor always share the same number of sharps or flats, and these are unique to those scales. This combination of sharps or flats is called a key signature.

Chords
Any two notes played together describe an interval. Three or more notes played together are called a chord.

A triad is a simultaneous combination of three notes. It can be made up of any note plus the the two notes a third and a fifth above it. The means that a triad has two intervals, each of a third. All triads are three note chords, but not all three note chords are triads. In the harmonic series of any note, the tonic is the fundamental, and the octave, the 5th and the 3rd are the most prominent overtones. These are the notes that make up the triad, and the reinforcement of these overtones gives it its strong sound.

The four types of triad are: the major triad (C, E, G), the minor triad (C, Eb, G), the augmented triad (C, E, G#), and the diminished triad (C, Eb, Gb).


A triad can be built starting on any of the notes of either the major or minor scales. This gives chords that are associated with the key and it is the overlap of these chords between keys that allows harmonic movement within chord progressions.


In the above diagram the triads for a major and a harmonic minor scale are shown. For the example of the C-major scale it can be seen that the following triads exist: C-major, D-minor, E-minor, F-major, G-major, A-minor and B-diminished, and in D-minor: D-minor, E-diminished, F-augmented, G-minor, A-major, Bb-major and C#-diminished. The triads of a minor key therefore are different from those of a major scale.

Some keys are closely related to each other. Consider the triads in the G-major and C-major keys. If you refer to the above diagram you can see that four out of the seven triads are identical: G-major, A-minor, C-major and E-minor. This means that it is fairly easy to change the key centre from C-major into G-major by using the shared chords as harmonic pivets to change the key. This process is called modulation. The same follows for F-major and C-major. The F is the fourth degree, or sub-dominant, of C and the G is the fifth degree, or dominant, of C. Triads built on these degrees of the scale will always sound good when played in progression with the root triad, and majority of music is based upon this premise.

There are far more complex chords than triads, but the triads tend to account for most of musical harmony with other chords adding additional spice. Seventh chords which add another third interval on top of an existing triad are used to make a chord sound more interesting and have become a feature of both Blues and Jazz, where 11th and 13th chords are often used as well.

Rhythm
As music is an event that concerns both notes and time this section would not be complete without a brief mention of rhythm.

The basic unit of time is called the beat. Beats are usually grouped into threes or fours depending upon the time signature of the piece. For example waltzes are always in three time, and marches in four. These groupings of beats are called bars or measures and are important focuses for the harmony.

Musical phrases are usually multiples of two bars with the harmony starting at a particular key, possibly modulating to other intermediate keys during the phrase, and then usually returning to the start key near the end.

The term tempo describes the rate of the beats and is usually in the order of between sixty and two hundred beats per minute. At sixty beats per minute a bar would pass every four seconds. Rhythm is the way in which a tempo is played and dictates how the notes are emphasised, or "accented". It is this aspect that produces the "feel" of the music.

The beat can be split into smaller intervals of time, which can be combined to produce any note length. These all have names, for instance a single beat is called a crochet and a half-beat called a quaver. They can also be described as fractions of a four beat bar, the crochet becoming known as a quarter note, the quaver as an eighth note, and so on.

The Musical Alphabet(with a teaching video): learn-music-theory.com/lessons/bas001.php

The Natural Notes


One of the first things we need to learn with regards to music theory is the musical alphabet. Just like the English alphabet is the building blocks for words, sentences, paragraphs and novels, the musical alphabet is the basis for notes, chords, songs and albums.

The musical alphabet is much shorter than the English alphabet, but seemingly no less difficult to learn in the end (in my humble opinion). It consists of A, B, C, D, E, F and G. These are the seven natural notes of music….’natural’ meaning they are neither sharp nor flat (we’ll get to those terms in a minute). If you look at a piano keyboard, you will see that these notes repeat over and over. Ascending (from left to right), when we get to a G note, we start over and the next note is an A note. Descending (from right to left), when we get to an A note, we start again with G as the next note (see Figure 1 below). In the figure I have marked ‘Middle C’, which is a common reference point on piano. This is the C note closest to the middle of the keyboard.

An octave is the distance from one note to the next higher or lower occurrence of that same note. For instance, from one C to the next C is one octave. From one A to the next A is one octave. From one A to two A’s away is two octaves. Notice that if you start on an A note and count the number of white keys up to the next A note (counting both A’s), you will get a count of 8, which is what the prefix “oct” means. Nifty, huh?



Figure 1. A piano keyboard



Pitch, half-steps, whole-steps, sharps and flats
Pitch defines how high or low a note is. On a piano if you start pressing keys from left to right, you will go higher in pitch. Go the reverse way, and you will be going lower in pitch.

A half-step refers to the distance from one note to the next closest note.

A whole-step is simply two half-steps, or the distance from one note to the second closest note.

To illustrate this, let’s refer back to Figure 1, starting with the C note that is the third white key from the left in the graphic. To the right of the C note is a group of two black keys, then it appears to skip a black key between the E and the F, then a group of three black keys, then skips another black key between the B and ‘Middle C’, then two black keys, etc. Okay, now pay attention: Since there is no black key between B and C, going from B to C is a half-step. Since there is a black key between C and D, going from C to D is a whole-step. Going from C to the black key between C and D would be a half-step. Remember that we have defined a half-step as the distance from one note to the next closest note? Well, the black keys are notes too! They are called sharps and flats.

On a guitar since there are no black and white keys (only frets), going from one fret to the next closest fret on the same string is a half-step. Going two frets is a whole step.

So what’s up with sharps and flats?

A sharp raises a natural note by one half-step. Sharps are designated with the ‘#’ sign.

A flat lowers a natural note by one half-step. Flats are designated with the ‘b’ sign.

So why aren’t there any black keys between B and C and between E and F? Simple….because there are no sharps or flats between B and C or between E and F. This is just one of those rules of music that need to be memorized…and if you forget, just look at a piano keyboard to remind you! Sharps and flats are examples of accidentals. Accidentals raise or lower notes’ pitches.

So let’s go one step further and define these sharps and flats. If we look at the black key between the C and the D, this note can be called either ‘C sharp’ (because it raises the pitch of the C note) or ‘D flat’ (because it lowers the pitch of the D note). These two notes (C sharp and D flat) are called enharmonic equivalents, because it is basically two different names for the same note. Which name you call it by depends on the context…much like in the English language you would use either the spelling ‘there’ or the spelling ‘their’ for the same sounding word depending on the context.

So let’s revisit our figure with all the notes (and ‘their’ enharmonic equivalents) named.



Figure 2. Piano keyboard with note names and enharmonic equivalents